Graduate Employability Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Graduate Employability - Essay Example The Department of Trade also ranked Systems Software among the thirty fastest growing professions; Systems Software will grow by 30.4 percent by the year 2018 (Scott, 2012). Trading activities are going international with the increased rate of globalization. Nowadays, a trader does not have to travel to a foreign country in order to purchase merchandise or personal goods. Online orders and payments are sufficient to do financial transactions and transport goods to the buyer. Cross-border traders, therefore, require system developers and administrators to ensure that the transaction systems are updated. The next decade will be characterised three out of four new science and engineering jobs being in computing. For example, two hundred and ninety-five thousand and two hundred jobs (representing 27 percent of the new STEM jobs) will be in software engineering (Scott, 2012). STEM further projects that the number of jobs in Network Analysis and Administration will exceed the number of vac ancies in traditional engineering by two hundred and thirty-five thousand, and seven hundred (Smeding, 2012). Basic computer literacy such as Microsoft Word, PowerPoint, Access and Excel will not enable a prospective employee to secure these jobs. This is because these professional occupations further knowledge and skills gained through the study of Computer Science, Software Engineering and Information Systems. 1.1.1 Computer Science Computer Science will expose the students and job seekers to practical approaches of computation and its applications. Computer Science enables learners of IT/Computing to study the feasibility, mechanization, expression and structure of computer algorithms. The computer algorithms underlie storage, communication, acquisition, representing, and accessing... The primary focus of this essay is to provide insights into the needs and perceptions of graduate employers in the Information Technology/Computing sector. This will be achieved by a close study of the jobs available, the requirements for employment, responsibilities of the employees and their remunerations. The report also covers the necessity of various skills and abilities required by employers, the level of graduate education required to fill the vacant positions, the challenges that companies face in recruiting graduates and views on how graduates can enhance their employability skills. The researcher mentions that the reader of the report will be able to identify the areas that are buoyant or depressed in IT and Computing; the information will be crucial to prospective employees and current students of Information Technology/Computing once they begin searching for jobs. The researcher of this report also focused on the employability skills of people aspiring to pursue courses i n Information Technology/Computing. The esssay considered the general course of computer engineering, and the skills that employers require to hire candidates for computing-related jobs. Information Technology is a broad field of study that encompasses Computer Science, Software Engineering and Information Systems. In conclusion, the researcher also included in this report the descriptions of the occupations, that fall under Computer Science and the salaries that professionals in IT/Computing sector earn.

Road Accidents Essay Example for Free

Road Accidents Essay Road accidents are increasing every day and especially in Christmas, summer holidays or weekends. Lots of people lose their lives on the roads and it is very difficult to resolve this problem which affects almost to the whole world. Not only the people can die, they can be injury and don? t get to recover of their wounds in all their lives. There are several causes of road accidents and I ´m going to mention some of them that I think they are the main causes: don’t respect the speed limit, drive drunk, drive many hours without rest, don’t put attention at the road, don’t be patient, bad conditions of roads, bad weather (snow, flog, rain,†¦), and there are more but I think that these are the most important. Firstly if we want to solve this problem, we have to realize that to drive is not a play. We manage a machine very dangerous that it could kill anybody and there laws that we have to carry out. Everybody like to buy a big car that it can run a high speed but we have to realize that we must respect the speed limits because the fact that we have a good car don’t give us the right to drive at the speed that we would like to drive. Not only we have to drive well when we getting the drive license also after we have just got the license driving. The Government must improve the roads, the fines must be higher because I think that it is the unique way the people respect the laws and parents and teachers must to teach and encourage to their children how they will have to drive when they have a car. Nowadays there are a lot of improvements that they make driving safer than ten years ago. Cars are safer because they have many devices that they help us to drive and in case of accident they look after our lives. Ten years ago only the most expensive cars have airbags, nowadays all cars not only have one airbag rather they have four or more airbags. Car? s breaks are so good that you can stop your car almost in the same distance in a wet road than in a dry road. The cars are safer now than years ago but now there are much more cars and the possibility of accident is higher. Also it would be important to put more crash barriers on the roads to avoid much harms when the motorcyclist fall down on the roads. The roads have improved a lot but I think that it is not enough. It? s true that there are more highways but there are a lot of secondary roads that they need to improve because the majority of drivers in my country, use every day these kinds of roads. Finally I want to mention that it is in our hands to reduce the roads accidents and it is very sad to lose any relative or friend because somebody doesn’t respect the laws.

Impact of Policies on Health and Social Care Setting

Impact of Policies on Health and Social Care Setting 2:1 Explain the implementation of national polices, legislation, regulations and codes of practice that are relevant to your work in the health and social care setting In my   place of work it imperative   that we follow the guide line,   I will be looking at national polices ,legislation ,regulations and codes of practice that was implement to help staff and health care provider to care and support our client . the safe guarding act look at provision to reform the law that associate with the care and support for adult also to support carers ,it provide polices that governor the health and social care setting   on how to safe guarding adult from harm and abuse or neglect, safe guarding mean protecting an adults right to live in safety .It is all about all different group of people and organisations working together to make sure abuse is stoop and prevent from happening to the vulnerable people in the society and if they are experience neglect that someone is aware of it and do something about it .it is of hotter most important that adult in the care setting is made to feel valve regarding their views and wishes. Valuing people identified so me of the situation facing people living with learning disabilities as poor coordinated service lack of choice for people with disability get insufficient support and help to care and support them self. Quality protect was introduced in 1988 as the governments main initiative to improve childrens social service. While applauding the attempt to improve services attention is drawn to four areas on which progress will depend better performance indicators, the extent and quality of research based evidence. The expansion of professionals social work training and user feedback and involvement. The first of the Quality protects objectives on promoting secure attachment is highlighted and the evidence for the current emphasis on adoption is considered. The article concludes that the extent of progress that is being made to help children and families in difficulty will need to be assessed by systematic research as well as by routine service performance indicators (2002) The Protection of Vulnerable Adults scheme was introduced by the Care Standards Act 2000. It aims to ensure that no one is allowed to work in the care sector if they have ever abused, neglected or otherwise harmed vulnerable adults in their care or placed them at risk.the Care standard Act was change to the Care act in 2014 Under the Care Act, local authorities have new functions. This is to make sure that people who live in their areas: Receive services that prevent their care needs from becoming more serious, or delay the impact of their needs Can get the information and advice they need to make good decisions about care and support Have a range of provision of high quality, appropriate services to choose from Provision for the Protection of Vulnerable Adults (POVA) scheme is made in Part 7 of the Care Standards Act 2000. At the heart of the POVA scheme is the POVA list. The POVA scheme will act like a workforce ban. From 26 July 2004, individuals should be referred to, and included on, the POVA list if they have abused, neglected or otherwise harmed vulnerable adults in their care or placed vulnerable adults in their care at risk of harm.People with dementia should expect support from workers who can confidently provide care which is tailored to their needs and interests, which minimizes stress and encourages independence and choice. This requires a higher level of understanding and of knowledge and skill, not only for the social care workers but also for those who provide practice supervision and management. To build the social care workforce needed to support the increasing number of older people with dementia, we must be creative in securing the most resource efficient workforce develo pment solutions that will have the greatest and most sustainable impact on social care practice. Underpinning this approach to workforce development is a commitment to the fundamental principles and standards of social care. The Code of Conduct provides a clear set of standards. It is essential to protect people who use health and care services, the public and others from harm. The code ensures you can:   Promote and uphold the privacy, dignity, rights, health and well being of people who use health and care services and their carers at all times.   Work in collaboration with your colleagues to ensure the delivery of high quality, safe and compassionate healthcare, care and support. Be sure of the standards your worker is expected to meet Check that your worker can fulfil the requirements of their role, behave correctly and do the right thing at all times Identify areas for continuing professional develop   The Code of Conduct describes how workers should behave.It states the standard of conduct expected of all healthcare support workers and adult social care workers in England. The code outlines the behaviours and attitudes that people who use care and support should expect from those workers signed up to it. The Code of Conduct is voluntary, but is seen as a sign of best practice.The Code of Conduct sets the standard of conduct expected of healthcare support workers and adult social care workers. It outlines the behaviour and attitudes that you should expect to experience from those workers signed up to the code. It helps them to provide safe, guaranteed care and support. The Code of Conduct is voluntary but it is seen as a sign of best practice. Guidance documents to help you understand or implement the Code of Conduct are also available. My duty as care worker is   to make sure that I treating my client with respect and dignity ,also treating them as individuals Respect your client confidentiality Maintain clear professional boundaries Inform my colleagues of changes Work with others as a team   Uphold and promote equality, diversity and inclusion. Working in   the health and social care sector I am learning new information about polices and procedure on how I am working and caring for my client I will carry out these polices by adhering to them by taking them in to account when I am working with the vulnerable client to sure they are treated with dignity and respect and feel value . (AC2.2) Explain how local policies and procedures can be developed in accordance with national policy requirements. Working in   the health care setting you will come across different policies and procedure that governor the health and social care setting   looking at safeguarding   and health and safety. .We have to develop   educational   program that all staff and volunteers have to under take   so they will have a better idea how to deal with them At the end of any training and group discussion, ask participants to complete a short quiz to show they have understood the information Make sure the training have information   about the policies and procedures, and where to access them, interduce them in   your induction   programs, or into your volunteer handbook if you have one. Create posters or process charts to post around the workplace to keep key messages firmly in mind Regularly upgrade in   policy or procedure in internal newsletters or at team meetings.Its important that staff and volunteers , new and existing member   understand the function of your policies and procedures, which is to create a safe and welcoming environment for everyone. Also have   section that outlines the details of the policy   who is responsible for actioning or implementing the policy, when it needs to be done by and which documents are needed to up date the policy. Also to inform new staff and volunteers that they will have to have a (DBS) disclosure and barring service before they are able to work with vulnerable individuals. The care standard act 2000 updated to care act 2014. There can be no secrets and no hiding place when it comes to exposing the abuse of vulnerable adults. The Governments White Paper, Modernising Social Services, published at the end of 1998, signalled our intention to provide better protection for individuals needing care and support.this is being taken up though the care standard act bill. Also The Data Protection Act controls how your personal information is used by organisations, businesses or the government. Everyone responsible for using data has to follow strict rules called data protection principles. They must make sure the information is: used fairly and lawfully. 2:3 Evaluate the impact of policy,legislation and codes of practice on your organisation policy and practice. Legislation and code of practice work together with my organisation policy to make sure that individuals are care for in accordance with the policy and procedure that governor the health and social care sector .There are numbers of principle that support the organisation policy like ,Equality act,safeguarding act,and human rights act 1998 . most health and social care setting will keep a watchful eye on the new laws and legislation to see when they are updated or change because if they are not aware that the policy as change they could be in breach of the legislation that governor their organisation and that could have serous effect on there business. In my   work environment, the code of practice ensures that the action of   professional comply with required company standards. This helps to identify and manage risks in order to ensure safety. A code of practice also helps to protect individuals with   quality services . Violating a code of practice in any profession may have legal consequences both for the organisation and the person preforming the act. So as we work in this sector we are reminded that our job is to support and care for our clients and safeguard them from harm and abuse. References https://www.reference.com/business-finance/meaning-code-practice-785df7315aefb2df access online 7/2/17 http://www.volunteer.vic.gov.au/manage-your-volunteers/policies-and-procedures/developing-policies-and-procedures 6/2/17 https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/194272/No_secrets access online 7/2/17 https://www.gov.uk/data-protection/the-data-protection-act access online 7/2/17 Hawort E et al (2010)Health ans social care   published by Pearson uk Rushton A, Dance C (2002)   http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/ access online 1/2/17 http://www.skillsforhealth.org.uk/standards/item/217-code-of-conduct access online 31/01/17 http://www.cqc.org.uk/content/safeguarding-people access online 1/02/17 http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ access online 31/01/17 http://www.mndassociation.org/ access online 1/2/17 http://www.agendani.com/community-care/ access online1/2/17 https://www.pointofcarefoundation.org.uk/?gclid=CO2CqPDm79ECFUq77Qod8sYEB w access online1/2/17 http://www.skillsforhealth.org.uk/standards/item/217-code-of-conduct access online 1/2/17 http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2000/14/pdfs/ukpga_20000014_en.pdf   access online1/2/17 http://www.fipo.org/docs/archive/csa.htm access online 1/2/17

America Needs More Gay Rights and Tolerance Essay -- Persuasive Essay,

Change is a constant something that I am always told and it’s a fact truth, but another key concept to remember is that change is slow it is glacial. Meaning change is very slow but despite the speed of change it is still change and the significant point is that change does occur. For the past 40 years the change for the gay society has been steady and constant the events of the stonewall riots gave the gay movement a voice and has allowed reasons for change. Gays are given rights that were once denied and violence against gays is considered illegal society is leaning towards gay rights and the word tolerance meaning to be socially and lawfully recognized and accepted is being understood by society to the fullest. But are these assumptions mere claims, has gay tolerance increased in the past 40 years? Religious institution are accepting Homosexual, popular social figures are accepted by the media and all and all gay rights have been improving both on a state and nat ional level. It is the recognition of these facts that allows one to conclude that Society has become more tolerant towards homosexual in the past 40 years the proof is in the evidence and is hard to be disputed. Let’s start by exploring the specific to the earlier claim that gay tolerance has increased within the past 40 years. In 1948 Harry Hay a gay communist started the first gay rights movement his radical decision lead to the stonewall movement over 20 years later in 1969 which official started the gay rights movement a riot that spread from the bars of New York to the streets of California. This riot is at the forefront of the gay movement and has long stood for the symbol of change for many in the Gay community (Adiatu). The stonewall movement has ... ...nspiring and all we as open minded individual can hope for is more change Gay tolerance has increased and it can be seen all throughout society individuals don’t have to look far to see the countless amount of gays getting married and the copious amount of gay being kept safe by the law enforcement and laws passed by the government. Homosexual has come along way and if society continues to stay open minded the Tolerations of gays will only increase to the point where gays are fully accepted by all. Works Cited Adaitu Dayo. Stonewall Riots: The beginning of the LGBT Movement. 22. June. Web. 7. Dec. 2009 National Conference of State Legislatures. www.Ncsl.org 01. JAN. 2009. Web. 10. Dec. 2009 Religious Tolerance. www. Religious Tolerance.org 10. Jul. 2007. Web. 14 Dec. 2009 Sadd Lydia. www. Gallup.com, 29. May. 2009. 12. Dec.2009 America Needs More Gay Rights and Tolerance Essay -- Persuasive Essay, Change is a constant something that I am always told and it’s a fact truth, but another key concept to remember is that change is slow it is glacial. Meaning change is very slow but despite the speed of change it is still change and the significant point is that change does occur. For the past 40 years the change for the gay society has been steady and constant the events of the stonewall riots gave the gay movement a voice and has allowed reasons for change. Gays are given rights that were once denied and violence against gays is considered illegal society is leaning towards gay rights and the word tolerance meaning to be socially and lawfully recognized and accepted is being understood by society to the fullest. But are these assumptions mere claims, has gay tolerance increased in the past 40 years? Religious institution are accepting Homosexual, popular social figures are accepted by the media and all and all gay rights have been improving both on a state and nat ional level. It is the recognition of these facts that allows one to conclude that Society has become more tolerant towards homosexual in the past 40 years the proof is in the evidence and is hard to be disputed. Let’s start by exploring the specific to the earlier claim that gay tolerance has increased within the past 40 years. In 1948 Harry Hay a gay communist started the first gay rights movement his radical decision lead to the stonewall movement over 20 years later in 1969 which official started the gay rights movement a riot that spread from the bars of New York to the streets of California. This riot is at the forefront of the gay movement and has long stood for the symbol of change for many in the Gay community (Adiatu). The stonewall movement has ... ...nspiring and all we as open minded individual can hope for is more change Gay tolerance has increased and it can be seen all throughout society individuals don’t have to look far to see the countless amount of gays getting married and the copious amount of gay being kept safe by the law enforcement and laws passed by the government. Homosexual has come along way and if society continues to stay open minded the Tolerations of gays will only increase to the point where gays are fully accepted by all. Works Cited Adaitu Dayo. Stonewall Riots: The beginning of the LGBT Movement. 22. June. Web. 7. Dec. 2009 National Conference of State Legislatures. www.Ncsl.org 01. JAN. 2009. Web. 10. Dec. 2009 Religious Tolerance. www. Religious Tolerance.org 10. Jul. 2007. Web. 14 Dec. 2009 Sadd Lydia. www. Gallup.com, 29. May. 2009. 12. Dec.2009

Harrah’s Entertainment, Inc. Case Study Essay

Why is it important to use â€Å"theoretical win† instead of â€Å"observed win† in order to access the revenue generated by customers? This question is in close relations to potential outcome and probability rather than actual figures generated by customers. First of all, the definition of â€Å"theoretical win† must be made clear from that of â€Å"observed win†. â€Å"Observed win† is the actual amount that is won physically over a certain period of time (e.g. per month) while â€Å"theoretical win† entails the potential amount to be won over a longer term period given that the player is consistent with his/her gambling habits. By calculating revenues generated by customers using the â€Å"observed win† method, Harrah’s will be short sighted in its approach and the results for the revenues generated will be inaccurate. For example, new customers who are just starting out to play in Harrah’s casinos might initially generate low amount of â€Å"observed win† for the company as they have little or no loyalty to Harrah’s. However, these players might actually have huge potential to generate large amount of wins for the company in the future once they are successfully bought over by the company’s program. Under the â€Å"observed win† method, these players may not be detected by the radar and often neglected. Insufficient marketing efforts and rewards will be directed at them to develop their loyalty to Harrah’s. Furthermore, one more point to note is that past behavior is not always indicative of future behavior and thus by using â€Å"observed win†, we are missing out on opportunities that are not observed in the past. As a result, it may lead to the loss of potential revenues generated by this group of people and an undervaluation of the realizable revenue of the company. On the other hand, if the â€Å"theoretical win† approach is used, the company would be able to predict the long term revenue generated from customers based on the assumption that they are loyal to the company using their average bids and bidding frequency at the casinos. This projection provides the company with a goal or rather unfulfilled yet achievable revenue in sight to strive for. By targeting these individuals with high potential and doing their best to induce loyalty in them, the company will be able to boost total revenues generated. In the long run, this method provides a more realistic extrapolation of the revenues achievable by the company if they target the right people.

Ethnicity and language Essay

1. Ethnicity Ethnicity is not a clear-cut term. It usually describes someone’s racial or cultural background but has a whole host of other connotations connected with appearance, dress, food, lifestyle etc. The ethnic majority in a particular place are, not necessarily those with the largest numbers, but those with social and political power. It is also the case that often terms describing race are fairly meaningless. People from the ‘British race’ for example originate from many other cultures and countries, depending on how far back you trace their family trees. 2. Prejudiced language Language can be used to make certain ethnic groups appear to be outsiders, or different from the ethnic majority. Markedness It is often assumed that immigrants, and people from ethnic minorities, must fit in with the ways and traditions of the ethnic majority. When this happens, the ethnic identity of the majority begins to appear normal and invisible, whilst that of the minority appears, strange, worthy of mention and marked. We often find in the media that people’ ethnicity is only mentioned when they are not white. So, we hear things like â€Å"the murdered black teenager Steven Lawrence† even in instances where the description of ethnicity is irrelevant. Negative labelling People are often labelled according to their colour, race or ethnicity. The problem with such labels is firstly that they may stop us seeing other aspects of the person as we are focussed on the attribute that the label describes. The second problem is that very often these labels are associated with negative stereotypes. We often find that the most marginalized groups in our society have the largest numbers of offensive terms to describe them. In addition, the media runs relatively few stories about those from ethnic minorities, and those that are included tend to reinforce the negative stereotypes by being about crime or disorder. 3. Marking Ethnic Identity Language can also be used as a powerful marker of ethnic identity. The language that we speak, and how we speak it, shows the ethnic group to which we believe we belong and claim solidarity with. British Black English People of West Indian and African Caribbean origin in England use many different varieties depending on where about they live and how long their families have been in Britain. Those born in Britain usually speak a variety of English and also a variety of Jamaican Creole, known as Patois. Linguistic features of Patois ?Lexical items (lick (hit), kenge (weak), bex (angry) ?Use of [? ] and [? ] in place of [? ] and [? ] e. g. [t? n] for [ n] ?Plural forms without /s/ suffix (e. g. many cow) ?Verbs not marked for tense (walk in place of walked) ?Simplified pronouns ([mi] for I, me, my and [dem] for they, them and their) ?Use of ‘fi’ in place of ‘to’ before infinitives. African American Vernacular English In the USA, the distinct languages of people of African American origin disappeared centuries ago. Nevertheless, a distinct variety of English, called African American Vernacular English (AAVE), has developed which acts as a symbol of ethnicity. AAVE is most often heard in cities in the North of the states. Linguistic features of AAVE ?Absence of standard copula be (e. g. ‘she very nice’, ‘that my book’) ?Use of copula be to signal recurring actions (‘she be at school on weekdays’) ?Multiple negation (‘I don’t want none’)? Consonant cluster simplification (‘aks in place of asks’) ?Existential it (where standard English has ‘there’, ‘it’s a boy’ for ‘there’s a boy’) Maori English In New Zealand, it is not clear if a Maori dialect of English actually exists. What is certain is that the features listed below occur more often in the speech of Maoris than Pakeha (non-Polynesian New Zealanders, usually of European origin) Linguistic features of Maori English ?Use of [? ] and [? ] in place of [? ] and [? ] e. g. [t? n] for [ n] ?Use of vocabulary items such as kia ora (greeting) and kuia (old woman)? Vernacular verb forms (walk for walked) ?Present tense forms with /s/ ‘I sees you’, ‘we gets home’) 4. Social Networks Social networks can help us understand speech patterns as the language and variety we use is influenced by the people we spend time with. You can draw a simple social network by considering the four or five people you speak to most often and drawing lines from their names to yours on a map. If any of those people know each other independently of you, connect them with lines (preferably of a different colour) too. Then add their two or three best friends, and so on.e. g. Tom Richard Bob Barbara Sandy Dave Features of social networks Density Density refers to whether members of a person’s network are in touch with each other separately. In the example above, only Richard and Bob know each other independently of Tom so his network is not a dense one. Plexity Plexity refers to the type of transactions that we are involved in with other people. If, for example, Tom only ever plays squash with Barbara, the relationship would be considered a uniplex one. If however, Tom and Barbara lived, worked and socialised together it would be a multiplex one. Language and Networks The language or variety we use is influenced by the people we talk to and what we talk to them about. We may change the language or variety we are using depending on which part of our network we are currently interacting with. For example, we may be more formal at work than at home. This type of language/variety shift is probably more likely if our social network is not very dense and our relations tend to be uniplex. If our networks are dense and multiplex, the whole network is more likely to use the use the same language or variety.

20 Descriptive Essay Topics What to Write about Canadian Food

20 Descriptive Essay Topics What to Write about Canadian Food Writing a descriptive essay about something you are not exactly an expert on is never easy. It becomes even more difficult when you are free to choose any topic within the confines of a general theme – your knowledge is insufficient to choose anything in particular as you simply have no idea what to choose from. So, if you have to write a descriptive essay about Canadian cuisine, feel free to use these topics we’ve prepared for you: Poutine – an Artery-Clogging Delight of Canadian Cuisine Maple Syrup as the Basic Symbol of Canadian Culture Canadian Ice Wine and Why It Is So Special BeaverTails – Pastry Celebrating Canadian National Animal Newfoundland Cod Tongues – Refuse Turned Delicacy Pemmican – the Precursor of Modern Protein Bars Butter Tart – the Most Canadian Dessert in Canada Ice Beer – the Canadian Contribution to the World of Brewing Tourtiere – Traditional French-Canadian Dish Donairs – Middle-Eastern Food Turned Canadian The Disputed Origins of Nanaimo Bar Bloody Caesar – Canada’s National Cocktail Traditional Cuisine of the First Nations Montreal-Style Bagel – Jewish Contribution to Canadian Cuisine Fiddleheads and The Ways They Are Prepared in Canada Acadian Rappie Pie and Its Origins Fish and Brewis – Traditional Newfoundland Delicacy Garlic Fingers as a Canadian Take on Pizza Tiger Tail Ice cream – Ubiquitous Canadian Licorice Dessert Flapper Pie as a Staple of Canadian Prairie Culture A Sample Descriptive Essay on Poutine – an Artery-Clogging Delight of Canadian Cuisine If you ask a resident of Canada which dish he or she considers the most iconic for the country’s cuisine, chances are that you will be sent to the closest poutine place to give a try to this peculiar dish, not very well known outside of Canada. Poutine all by itself makes a meal that would horrify any advocate of healthy lifestyle – Canadians laughingly admit that it is a dish that is extremely prone to sticking to your ribs. Your basic poutine consists of French fries, fresh cheese curds and special, usually sweetened gravy-like sauce used to keep the rest of the dish hot longer. This, however, is just a basic recipe – different regions, restaurants and communities have their own variants of poutine, ranging from fast-food to haute-cuisine variations introducing delicacies like merguez sausage, foie gras and sometimes even truffles and caviar. And even these don’t mark the limitations of culinary weirdness associated with poutine – some chefs are known to throw bacon, maple syrup, deep-fried Kit-Kat bars, marshmallows, chocolate ganache and/or ice-cream into the mix, producing a truly mind-boggling and bowel-curdling experience. As is clearly seen, even without resorting to this kind of culinary atrocities poutine is an extremely versatile dish, capable of using many different ingredients in many different combinations. There is no consensus on where poutine comes from, who its inventor was and what exactly its name means, despite the fact that the dish is a relatively young one – most food historians agree that it appeared around 1950s. The exact story of its appearance differs from account to account. According to one version, the word ‘poutine’ derives from a Quebecois slang term meaning ‘mess’, and the dish itself appeared when a restaurateur from Warwick, Fernand Lachance, was asked by a cafà © regular to put cheese curds on his French fries and exclaimed in exasperation that it will make a damn mess (poutine). Another version of the word’s etymology claims that ‘poutine’ is a gallicization of the English word ‘pudding’, which supposedly was used in Canada to define a mixture (usually unappetizing) of different foods. However, it seems that too much times elapsed since then to make declare any of these theories true with any degree of certainty. Despite its rather unassuming name, poutine is extremely popular throughout Canada, and at least three different regions of the country claim to be its birthplace: Drummondville, Victoriaville and Saint-Jean-sur-Richelieu. However, there is still a possibility that this most Canadian of all Canadian dishes may be not entirely local in origin and was derived from or at least inspired by a remarkably similar dish popular in the north of England, Scotland and in the Isle of Man, called ‘chips, cheese and gravy’. It was well-known in the UK some fifty years before the emergence of poutine, although grated cheddar was used instead of cheese curds and gravy was sometimes replaced by curry sauce. Nevertheless, you should better keep this theory to yourself when discussing poutine with the Canadians, since they often find immense pride in their national dish despite good-humoredly acknowledging that it is probably not the healthiest of foods. All in all, poutine is among those dishes that inexplicably rise from obscurity to become staples of national diet and produce horrified fascination in foreigners. It is equally widespread and accepted in fast food joints and upscale restaurants and, together with maple sauce, butter tarts and Nanaimo bars, has become an integral part of local food culture. References Albaba, Ken. Food Cultures of the World Encyclopedia. Santa-Barbara, California, 2011. Print Cooke, Nathalie. What’s to Eat? Entrà ©es in Canadian Food History. Montreal, Canada: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 2009. Print Dojny, Brooke. New England Home Cooking: 350 recipes from town and country, land and sea, hearth and home. Boston, Mass: Harvard Common Press, 1999. Print Miller, Marissa. â€Å"In Montreal, A Week for Poutine†. The New York Times. Jan. 29 2015 Morton, Mark. Cupboard Love: A Dictionary of Culinary Curiosities. Toronto, Canada: Insomniac Press, 2004. Print Kittler, Pamela Goyan, Kathryn Sucker. Food and Culture. Boston, Massachusetts: Cengage Learning, 2007. Print Sinclair, Charles G. International Dictionary of Food Cooking. Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn. Print

Bioluminesscence essays

Bioluminesscence essays Fireflies sparking on a summer's evening. Jellyfish glowing in night waters. These are examples of bioluminescence - light emitted by living organisms. Unlike incandescent light, which is caused by heat, the light produced by luminous animals and plants results from a biochemical reaction to oxygen. Among the thousands of species of bioluminescent marine creatures, the majority are planktonic organisms. Frequently found in immense groups, these creatures glow in the wake of swimming fish or passing ships. Certain bodies of water, such as Phosphorescent Bay* in Puerto Rico have extremely heavy concentrations, contributing to legends of spirits inhabiting the water. Some luminous species of saltwater bacteria cause decaying fish to glow in the dark. Certain animals such as the "flashlight" fish culture colonies of these bacteria on their bodies and use them as their own light source. At levels where the sun does not penetrate, luminous animals give the effect of a starlit night. Scientists estimate that 96 percent of all creatures found at these depths possess some form of self light generation. Some deep-sea creatures develop photophores, light-producing organs which may be arranged in symmetrical rows along the fish's body or in a single unit overhanging the mouth. Studies reveal that photophores are connected to the nervous system and are biochemically activated. Why does bioluminescence occur? Scientists still aren't certain, but there are several possible reasons. "Blinking" patterns observed in many species indicate that the light serves a communication or courtship purpose. The light may reveal food or lure prey. Creatures with poorly developed or nonexistent eyes may use the light to blind or startle predators. In the past, bioluminescence has caused superstition, awe, and even fear. Today, it remains one of nature's most fascinating phenomena. *Bioluminescence was once confused with phosphorescence in the belief t ...

Same-sex marriage research Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Same-sex marriage research - Essay Example Recent census data reveal that the number of committed same-sex couples in the United States continues to rise, as does the number of same-sex couples raising children. Legal recognition of these relationships is vital to protecting the emotional and economic well-being of these families. Furthermore, legal recognition must be on an equal plane with heterosexual marriage-'separate but equal' is never equal." (Gomes, 15) In the article, Gomes also suggests why the issue of same-sex marriage is so controversial and the various arguments held by the advocates as well as critics of same-sex marriage. Therefore, Gomes's article has made a central contribution to the understanding of the various issues concerning same-sex marriage. According to the article by Gomes, there are several reasons why the advocates of same-sex marriage believe that it should be made legal. The advocates of same-sex marriage argue that the individuals have the prime right to enjoy their freedom and any attack against the practice should be treated as an assault against their personal liberty. According to the article, "The failure to recognize same-sex marriage and to allow adoption by non-biological life partners results in a harmful lack of legal protections for children of gay parents.

The Benefits of the Legalization of Marijuana in Colorodo and Research Paper

The Benefits of the Legalization of Marijuana in Colorodo and Washinton state - Research Paper Example The legalization of marijuana means that there will be no more arrests that will be made to people either found using or in possession of the drug. Under the new Colorados law, residents who are beyond 21 years of age can possess, produce, sell and use up to an ounce of the drug at any given time. The law has had an immense and measurable effect to the colored people in Colorado where racial disparities regarding marijuana use and possession arrests have been questionable. Police in Colorado have been arresting blacks three times more than the whites. The arrests have been questionable since the whites have higher rates of using the drug than the colored residents. According to the NAACP, the legalization will alleviate the biased arrests. The blacks make 11% of Colorado’s population, but for every three Marijuana related arrests made, one must be a black person. The arrests have long-lasting and devastating effects. The arrests records affect an individual’s chances of getting a job, loans, housing, and other public benefits. People with Marijuana arrest records are demoted to the second class status. With the legalization of Marijuana, such arrests are stopped making life easy for all residents (Franklin 4). Legalizing the use of marijuana solves the problems associated with the illicit market. Marijuana users will shift to purchasing the drug from regulated stores. Violence originating from street corner trades will cease as the markets will be replaced with well-guarded stores having security and surveillance systems. Consumers now get clear information of what they are buying instead of getting whatever that is wrapped up in a baggie. The consumers will now have the benefit of choosing of what they want from a wide variety of the product depending on the price and the quality they want. The prices of the drug will respond like those of other products depending on supply and demand. The

Federalist #10 and the Existence of Faction in Modern Government Term Paper

Federalist #10 and the Existence of Faction in Modern Government - Term Paper Example I am going to show the despite the publication of Federalist #10 and consistent American media attention to the downsides of factions taking a position contrary to the interests of the American majority, Americans continue to vote in elections against their interests, specifically lower and middle class Americans voting for Republican candidates in recent elections. Although a large republic has been established, political factions such as the Tea Party still exist and substantially influence government. Federalist paper and media downsides on faction have not yielded much fruit. Americans have continued to form factions, which they feel address their interest. This observation leads to an in depth analysis of Federalist paper. In the federalist paper, the author identified two methods, which would solve social inclination towards formation of faction in the society. It argued that one method of dealing with these groups in the society is to stump their causes. The second method that the author mentioned is to control the effects created in the society by this factions. The author of Federalist paper proposed two methods of eliminating factions or emergence of factions in the society. The first proposal argues that by eliminating liberty, which provides room for the formation of factions, the society may fail to form factions1. The second proposal claims that when every citizen gets the opportunity to present their opinions and interests, they would not be able to form factions. Apparently, the second proposal seems to use democratic means of solving a problem, which seems to surface every time. On the other hand, historians and critics have argued that the first proposal has worst implication than the formation of factions. Human diversity is not a factor that any person can eliminate2. However, the society can develop better ways of dealing with diversified views. It is arguable that liberty of the society is not a privilege

See Below Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 7

See Below - Essay Example The distinction between legitimate and effective authority is that an effective one simply supports to change the decisions that apply to others. Legitimate authority has the ability to alter these decisions. The fact that authority calls for performance for a certain action is a basis for decision making which is not to be added to all other sound decisions when assessing what is to be done, but should eliminate and replace some of them. The theory is only acceptable if there are limits on what the legitimate authority can fairly order the individuals to do, a reason why it does not essentially replace all relevant decisions. In conclusion, Hobbes and Locke’s approach to decision making can be justified only based on consent. There should be a voluntary formation of political obligation and justice, where justice depends on what the individuals are willing or choose to agree to. Individuals should decide according to the concept of the â€Å"original

Analysis of the Research Concerning the Drop in Voters Turnout among Essay

Analysis of the Research Concerning the Drop in Voters Turnout among Young People - Essay Example Among the recommendations given were: to recognize and understand young people’s concerns; to work to increase political awareness and knowledge; to tackle the related issues of social and political exclusion among young people; to review the electoral system and the choices available to voters; to make electoral registration easier; to make voting easier. In order to address the situation, a campaign that aims to change the current attitudes and perceptions of these young people is necessary that will influence behaviors towards voting. The primary target audience in our case would be young people that belong to the age range 18-24, who are legally eligible to vote. This primary target audience will be the focus of our marketing communications messages. But we also have our secondary target audience is composed of a broader group, which is young people: this encompasses young people from ages 11-24. Given our primary target audience as the decision-makers of whose behaviors we want to influence towards voting, we need to identify the other members of our decision-making unit who would serve as influencers. First, we need to know who these people look up to. These can be opinion leaders that they admire and respect so much, such as celebrities like famous football players, young music icons, actors, and writers. Other potential influencers include peers, community leaders, parents and older siblings. These people also get information from their co-workers, classmates, university professors and tutors. The SWOT or strengths, weakness, opportunities, and threats related to the election voting participation is determined and given a particular weight in order to determine what to prioritize. The higher the number, the more an item should be prioritized.

Nosocomial Diseases Annotated Bibliography Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Nosocomial Diseases - Annotated Bibliography Example Giving such a thorough overview is useful in tackling most of the basic knowledge needed to fully answer the thesis statement, as well as providing information on the specific prevention tactics that clinical staff can take. This peer-reviewed paper gives information provided by the Center for Disease Control (CDC) on nosocomial infections. This gives an official perspective on how to deal with the infections as well as their prevalence in medical environments. The definitions also cover the various diagnostic tests that need to be used to confirm the presence of a nosocomial infection as well as the infectious agent, which is important in ensuring the correct course of action is taken. This paper is not very useful in answering the question. The first problem is that it is over 25 years old, and epidemiology is a rapidly changing subject, and nosocomial infections are on the increase. It could have a purpose in arguing the thesis, if combined with more current epidemiological paper, because the thesis mentions the fact that hospital acquired infections are a rising trend. This source is only good in context. Again, this research paper is quite old, but does give an overview of the trends in the types of microbe that are involved in nosocomial infection. This paper gives a lot of scientific knowledge about the nature of the infectious agent and how they are likely to evolve and mutate to cause more problems in the hospital environment. It also warns against the over-use of antibiotics, something that we see today is causing a number of issues in producing antibiotic-resistant bacterial strains which are commonly seen in nosocomial infections such as MRSA. Although the information here should be taken with caution, it does provide some interesting perspectives. This is a clinical reference text and therefore can be used to provide

See Below Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 7

See Below - Essay Example The distinction between legitimate and effective authority is that an effective one simply supports to change the decisions that apply to others. Legitimate authority has the ability to alter these decisions. The fact that authority calls for performance for a certain action is a basis for decision making which is not to be added to all other sound decisions when assessing what is to be done, but should eliminate and replace some of them. The theory is only acceptable if there are limits on what the legitimate authority can fairly order the individuals to do, a reason why it does not essentially replace all relevant decisions. In conclusion, Hobbes and Locke’s approach to decision making can be justified only based on consent. There should be a voluntary formation of political obligation and justice, where justice depends on what the individuals are willing or choose to agree to. Individuals should decide according to the concept of the â€Å"original

Nosocomial Diseases Annotated Bibliography Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Nosocomial Diseases - Annotated Bibliography Example Giving such a thorough overview is useful in tackling most of the basic knowledge needed to fully answer the thesis statement, as well as providing information on the specific prevention tactics that clinical staff can take. This peer-reviewed paper gives information provided by the Center for Disease Control (CDC) on nosocomial infections. This gives an official perspective on how to deal with the infections as well as their prevalence in medical environments. The definitions also cover the various diagnostic tests that need to be used to confirm the presence of a nosocomial infection as well as the infectious agent, which is important in ensuring the correct course of action is taken. This paper is not very useful in answering the question. The first problem is that it is over 25 years old, and epidemiology is a rapidly changing subject, and nosocomial infections are on the increase. It could have a purpose in arguing the thesis, if combined with more current epidemiological paper, because the thesis mentions the fact that hospital acquired infections are a rising trend. This source is only good in context. Again, this research paper is quite old, but does give an overview of the trends in the types of microbe that are involved in nosocomial infection. This paper gives a lot of scientific knowledge about the nature of the infectious agent and how they are likely to evolve and mutate to cause more problems in the hospital environment. It also warns against the over-use of antibiotics, something that we see today is causing a number of issues in producing antibiotic-resistant bacterial strains which are commonly seen in nosocomial infections such as MRSA. Although the information here should be taken with caution, it does provide some interesting perspectives. This is a clinical reference text and therefore can be used to provide

Literature Review Essay Example for Free

Literature Review Essay Abstract The primary role of literature review in a quantitative research study to gain information on the subject of your research question and identify unbiased and valid studies connected with your research question. For instance, my quantitative research question is â€Å"all other factors being equal, do high school students reading popular fiction achieve better Language Arts test scores than high school students reading curriculum-required fiction? † My hypothesis is that high school students reading popular fiction will outperform the students who read curriculum-required fiction, because if you enjoy reading you will perform better. Then I need to do a literature review to discover if my question has already been answered and I may need to modify it or if there are related studies to my research question that can provide quantifiable research. Introduction Quantitative Research involves collecting numerical data though content analysis, performance tests, personality measures, questionnaires, etc. This type of research procedures include an objective/unbiased approach to collecting numerical data from a large number of participants and analyzes these numbers using statistics in order to answer a specific, narrow research question. As part of research, a literature review is required. A quantitative literature review is an extensive review of literature that may or may not influence the study and your research question (UOA 2013). The primary role of literature review in a quantitative research study to gain information on the subject of your research question and identify unbiased and valid studies connected with your research question. For instance, my quantitative research question is â€Å"all other factors being equal, do high school students reading popular fiction achieve better Language Arts test scores than high school students reading curriculum-required fiction? † My hypothesis is that high school students reading popular fiction will outperform the students who read curriculum-required fiction, because if you enjoy reading you will perform better. Then I need to do a literature review to discover if my question has already been answered and I may need to modify it or if there are related studies to my research question that can provide quantifiable research. Why This Research Question This research question â€Å"all other factors being equal, do high school students reading popular fiction achieve better Language Arts test scores than high school students reading curriculum-required fiction? † needs to be answered. There is a controversy over what types of literature is acceptable for students to have access. One of my favorite book series (Harry Potter) is a banned book in certain states. This research question would add to research already completed. Methodology in the Research Question This research question â€Å"all other factors being equal, do high school students reading popular fiction achieve better Language Arts test scores than high school students reading curriculum-required fiction? † is an experimental research question and a casual research question. An experimental research question tests the cause and effect and a causal research question that test for a cause and effect relationship between variables. The variables in this research question are the independent variable (IV), age, ethnicity, and gender, the dependent variable (DV), assigned popular fiction and curriculum-required fiction, and the covariant (CoV) socio-economic status. Additionally, this question has ratio data. Ratio data is continuous. Ratio data rank order, but also quantify and compare the sizes of differences between them. Ratio data has an absolute zero and allows for how many times greater. The research question can discover how many times greater or less are the test scores of high school students who read popular fiction than those who read curriculum-required fiction. Supporting Research My hypothesis of the research question is that high school students reading popular fiction will outperform the students who read curriculum-required fiction, because if you enjoy reading you will perform better. The other similar research found during the literature review relates to my research. Although, my specific research question has not been fully researched. Other research relates to my question. According to the article, Impact of Students Reading Preferences on Reading Achievement, middle school students in Canada found â€Å"The most significant indicators were reading novels or fictional texts, informative reading or non-fiction, and reading books or other texts from the school library. In-class reading and participation in discussions pertaining to school-related reading were also shown to enhance reading achievement. These results are somewhat surprising in that research documenting this subject mainly emphasizes the use of pedagogical material corresponding to the interests/needs of students to foster achievement in reading† (Bouchamma, et al. 2013). This research shows that reading achievement can come from both required and optional reading. Moreover, according to the article, Reading Attitude and its Effect on Leisure Time Reading, â€Å"gender, educational level, age, and amount of spare time have a positive effect on reading behavior† (Stokmans 1999). Additionally, there is â€Å"a positive relationship between time spent reading fiction and educational level† (Stokmans 1999). This research shows that reading fiction relates positively to reading level. Additionally, according to the article, Popular Publications May Help Students Reading Scores, â€Å"We are concerned about the struggle to increase scores that children are posting on state-required exams not because of the scores themselves, but because they are strong indications that state students may not be gaining the thorough and analytical skills they need to become successful readers† (Michigan Chronicle 1997). This newspaper article shows that popular publications may help students on their reading score. Conclusion This research question â€Å"all other factors being equal, do high school students reading popular fiction achieve better Language Arts test scores than high school students reading curriculum-required fiction? † needs to be answered. This research question addresses the controversy over what types of literature is acceptable for students to have access to. Moreover, this research question would add to research already completed. It would allow  administrators and other educators to decide if certain books can be helpful in high school students learning environments. Bibliography Bouchamma, Y. , Poulin, V. , Basque, M. , Ruel, C. (2013). Impact of students reading preferences on reading achievement. Creative Education, 4(8), 484-491. Retrieved February 6th, 2014 from: http://search. proquest. com/docview/1441488139? accountid=28844 Mia J. W. Stokmans, Reading attitude and its effect on leisure time reading, Poetics, Volume 26, Issue 4, May 1999, Pages 245-261, ISSN 0304-422X, Retrieved February 6th, 2014 from: http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/S0304-422X(99)00005-4 http://www. sciencedirect. com/science/article/pii/S0304422X99000054 Popular publications may help students reading scores. (1997, Oct 01). Michigan Chronicle. Retrieved February 6th, from: http://search. proquest. com/docview/390200035? accountid=28844 University of Arkansas Libraries (2013, Oct. 30) Literature Reviews. LibGuides. Retrieved February 6th, 2014 from: http://uark. libguides. com/content. php? pid=110370sid=1384703

Presentation on Urinary Tract Infection (UTI) Reflection

Presentation on Urinary Tract Infection (UTI) Reflection INTRODUCTION As a part of my Overseas Nursing Programme, I had to conduct a seminar presentation on any topic of my interest in front of students. I was given the date of presentation. Knowledge expands through communication and presentation is a means of communication and best applicable when delivering knowledge to a group. Presentation means A speech or talk in which a new product, idea, or piece of work is shown and explained to an audience (Oxford dictionaries. 2014). The aim of any presentation is to motivate, to communicate, to persuade to inform, to teach or to help you express your ideas and get others to understand it(Bradbury, 2007). The content of your presentation have its own aim or purpose, normally its related to the outcomes you desire from the presentations communication. Before presenting ensure that you understand what your task is and the time available (Bradbury, 2007). During the presentation the speaker may use various aids of communication such as the audio visual aids li ke power point, graphs, various recordings. diagrams, flowcharts or models (Theobald, 2013). Reflective practices enables the health professional to bridge that gap between the theory and practice. Reflective practice is a process by which you stop and think about your practice, consciously analyse your decision making and draw on theory and relate it to what you do in practice (Jasper, 2003). Therefore I chose Gibbs model of reflection (1988) to reflect on my presentation. Gibbs model of reflection include six different steps which are Description, Feeling, Evaluation, Analysis, Conclusion and Action Plan (Gibbs, 1988). DESCRIPTION As a part of our Overseas Nursing Programme, we had to conduct a seminar presentation in the class in front of our batch mates. Presentation is a means of communication which can be used at various situations including a formal meeting, talk in a group or team briefing. (SkillsYouNeed (2014)). Seminar is a group meeting in which there is information or training given on a topic. Thus a seminar presentation is a method of communicating information on a topic. Selecting the topic was the toughest part. With the short time of presentation and considering the effective delivery of information, the topic of presentation had to be brief and simple. I chose Urinary Tract Infection as my topic of presentation as it was one of the most common condition seen in my area of practice. I did an extensive literature review for the topic to obtain wide data for my presentation. Aliterature review is the data obtained from scholarly paper, which consists of the most recent information including essential findings as well as methodological and theoretical contribution to a specific topic of interest (Baker, 2000). In my presentation, I included a brief description of UTI and stated that it is a type of infection which involves various parts of the urinary tract which includes the urethra, the bladder, the ureters and the kidneys (Amdekar, Singh and Singh, 2011). Urinary tract infections occur more commonly in women than men. Its estimated half of all wome n in the UK will have a UTI at least once in their life (Colgan and Williams, 2011). UTI diagnosis can be done via urine dip test and urine culture. Antibiotic treatment is necessary to clear the infection. Prevention being better than cure, good fluid intake and good personal hygiene can help reduce chances of getting urinary tract infection (Juthani-Mehta, et al. 2009). I also included in the content, how their behaviour was affected by this condition. I combined those with the practice and guidelines followed in the diagnosis and treatment in the UK and prepared the slides. I used power point technology to perform my presentation using texts, pictures and graphs. I used simple language and included only the main points. As the group for which the seminar was aimed at was educated in medical field and knew almost as much as I knew regarding the topic, discussion method was used. FEELING Initially, I was a bit anxious and nervous as I had to present in front of a gathering. Stage fright was bit of a concern. But regardless of that, I was able to present my topic well as there was a positive environment to support me. Great reflection also results from the positive environment offered to the presenter (Brookfield,1995). I felt more and more confident as the discussion started and I was able to answer all the doubts. My assessor also helped me. At the end of the seminar I felt satisfied with my work and happy that I was able to complete the task given to me. EVALUATION Even though with all the hassles, I was able to provide a brief description of the topic. It covered most of the areas and provided a clear picture regarding Urinary Tract Infection to the people gathered. Interactive secessions were carried out providing group involvement thus making the secession interesting. The various queries were dealt with proper explanation providing the accurate knowledge. ANALYSIS I got positive feedback from my assessor. By conducting the presentation, I was able to offer a brief description about the Urinary Tract Infection, its definition, occurrence, epidemiology, types, pathophysiology, its symptoms and management. I got good support from my assessor and audience who prompted me to do the presentation well. They were able to acquire knowledge regarding UTI and for some it offered a boost to their knowledge. CONCLUSION This presentation offered me an opportunity to develop my talent and skills in presentation. The group was able to understand and comprehend the information offered to them. Experiences were shared which brought in new information and made the discussion and thus the seminar more interesting. The assessors offered a positive feedback for my presentation. This experience helped me overcome my fears and gave me confidence to perform more presentation in my work place or future carrier pathway. ACTION PLAN After performing the reflective presentation, I came up with the following action plan. Firstly Expand my knowledge regarding various presentation methods and new trends in nursing. I will attend training and perform self motivated studies to update my knowledge regarding Urinary Tract Infection and its latest managements. Practice the information acquired for the safe management of UTI in my place of work. I will also do similar presentations in my area of work to expand the knowledge to my co workers and boost my skills in presentations as well. REFERENCE Amdekar, S; Singh, V, Singh, DD (2011). Probiotic therapy: immunomodulating approach toward urinary tract infection..Current microbiology63(5): 484–90. Atkins, S. and Murphy, K. (1994).Reflective Practice, Nursing Standards, 8(39)49-56 Baker, P. (2000). Writing a Literature Review.The Marketing Review1(2) 219-47. Bradbury, A (2007) Successful Presentation Skills. 3rd Edition, MPG Books Ltd; 4:60-68 Brookfield, S (1995), Developing critical thinkers: challenging adults to explore alternative ways of thinking and acting. Milton Keynes: Open University Press Colgan, R and Williams, M (2011). Diagnosis and treatment of acute uncomplicated cystitis.† Family physician84(7): 771–6. Gibbs G (1988), Learning by doing: A guide to teaching and learning methods,5:30-40 Jasper, M (2003) Beginning Reflective Practices, Foundation in nursing and health care. Nelson Thornes Publishers, 1-6 Johns, C. and Grahanm, J. (1996). Using a Reflective Model of Nursing and Guided Reflection, Nursing Standards 11(2) 34-38 Juthani-Mehta M, et al. (2009). Clinical features to identify urinary tract infections in nursing home residents: a Cohort study.J Am Geriatr Soc;57:963–970. NHS CHOICES. (2014) Urinary Tract Infection in Adults [Online] July 2014. Available from: http://www.nhs.uk/Conditions/Urinary-tract-infection-adults/Pages/Introduction.aspx . [ Accessed : 22 july 2014] Oxford dictionaries. 2014 Definition of presentation. Avaliable from: http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/presentation.html. (Accessed on 19/08/14) Theobald, T (2013) Develop Your Presentation Skills 2nd Edition, Kogan Page Publishers, 161-168. SKILLS YOU NEED. (2014) Presentation Skills [Online] 2014 Available from : http://www.skillsyouneed.com/present/what-is-a-presentation.html . [ Accessed : 22 july 2014] Smyth J (1989): Developing and sustaining critical reflection in teacher education. Journal of Teacher Education 40(2)2-9

MARK TWAIN :: essays papers

MARK TWAIN Mark Twain also known as Samuel Clemens. He was born in Florida, Missouri on Nov 30,1835, the sixth child of John and Jane Clemens. Several years later, in 1839, the family moved to nearby Hannibal, where Clemens spent his boyhood years. Clemens boyhood dream was to become a steamboatman on the river. Clemens' newspaper career began while still a boy in Hannibal. In 1848, a year after his father death, he was apprentice to printer Joseph Ament, who published the Missouri Courier. Did tragedy make Samuel Clemens (Cox Clinton). Missouri Courier only last for a few weeks before he started working for his brother at Orion's Western Union, for which he wrote his first published sketches and worked as a printer. Over the next two years he continued at the Western Union, occasionally taking stints as editor in Orion's absence. In 1852, Sam published several sketches in Philadelphia's Saturday Evening Post. Clemens left Hannibal in 1853, at age 18, and worked as a printer in New York City and Philadelphia over the next year. During his trip east he published letters in the Hannibal Journal. Upon returning to the Midwest in 1854, Clemens lived in several cities on the Mississippi: the most prominent of these was Keokuk, Iowa where his brother Orion founded the Keokuk Journal. In April 1861 came the start of civil war river traffic on the Mississippi was suspended, and Clemens steamboat career came to an end. He joined a volunteer militia group called the Marion Rangers, which drilled for two weeks before disbanding. Sam accompanied Orion to the Nevada Territory by stagecoach: President Lincoln had appointed Orion as secretary of the new Territory, and Sam was to be his secretary. (Cox Clinton). During the 1880s and early 90s, Clemens became heavily involved with investing in the Paige Compositor, an automatic typesetting machine. He poured great amounts of money in the machine, and even founded a company in 1886 to manufacture and distribute it. The advent of the linotype machine, however, sent the Paige Compositor to its doom. After the second model of the machine failed a test run at the Chicago Herald in 1894 where 32 linotypes were running smoothly, the machine was scrapped. Clemens contributed to the bankruptcy of his publishing company when he shifted funds from that firm into the compositor.

Louis MacNiece: anomalous displacement and post-colonial identity :: Essays Papers

Louis MacNiece: anomalous displacement and post-colonial identity I was the rector’s son, born to the anglican order, Banned forever from the candles of the Irish poor (â€Å"Carrickfergus†) Ireland inhabits a unique position within the current framework of post-colonial literature and theory. The history of Ireland and it’s relationship to England, from the twelfth century (when Henry II was decreed feudal lord of Ireland by the Pope) to the present day, is the history of a divided colonial nation synonymous with ideas of displacement, identity and culture. Indeed, Ireland may be understood as both colonial and post-colonial, sitting uncomfortably on the fence between labels of post-colonial discourse such as first and third world. Stephen Slemon’s evocative essay, â€Å"Unsettling the Empire: Resistance Theory for the Second World†, suggests the notion of a ‘second world’, or a semi-periphery in post-colonial theory, as a method of transcending myopic binarisms (104 - 110). Slemon argues that the critical and theoretical space created by the alternative of a second world accommodates the difficult examples of the post-colonial, white, settler cultures of Australia, New Zealand, southern Africa and Canada. Ireland, with regard to both the historical experience and to Irish cultural expression and production, is a further country which may be fruitfully situated in this space. The requirement of a ‘second world’ in post-colonial theory becomes glaringly obvious in a consideration of Ireland. As Liam Kennedy concludes, in a comparative analysis of Ireland to Asian and African post-colonial nations on economic grounds, â€Å"attempting to place Ireland in a Third World perspective turned out to be a largely empty enterprise† (Modern Ireland 114). The attempt to propose Ireland as a Third World nation has been common amongst various scholars. For example, in a Field Day pamphlet, Frederic Jameson claims the Dublin of Joyce’s fiction to be â€Å"an underdeveloped village† (Kennedy 107). Kennedy’s study clearly emphasises the fact that Ireland is economically a member of the First World, comparable to Western European countries as opposed to those of the developing world. Ireland’s Gross Domestic Product per head of population in 1913 was valued at US$655 compared to the 1960 figures of US$198 for Ghana and US$74 for India (Kennedy 110). To take a more contemporary view, the World Bank’s World Development Report 1991 shows that in 1989 Ireland was not a member of the Third World. The report, drawing on accepted measurements of wealth and social conditions such as GNP, diet, infant mortality rate, life expectancy, reliance on agriculture and illiteracy, demonstrates the incongruous nature of claiming a Third World status for Ireland.

Indian Railway

Marketing Project On INDIAN RAILWAYS Submitted by: Dhruti Badami 11BSPHH010XXX Nikhil Goyal 11BSPHH01XXX ContentsPage Introduction Marketing Mix SWOT Analysis Market Segmentation Market Targeting Market Positioning The Way Forward INTRODUCTION Indian Railways is the nationalized railway company of India which owns and operates most of the country's rail transport. It is the world’s second largest  employer behind Chinese army; has one of the largest and busiest rail networks in the world, an extensive network, which is spread over 60000 Route Kilometre, of which approximately 30 per cent is electrified. The Indian Railways have played an integrating role in the social and economic development of the country  , transporting over 18 million passengers and more than 2 million tonnes of freight daily, it is the world's largest commercial or utility employer, with more than 1. 4 million employees. Besides its stated function of transporting men and goods across the length and breadth of the country, it also enhances the country’s economy. As the country is emerging as one of the rapidly growing economies in the world, the need for a well- organized transport infrastructure would become more vital. Although there have been other modes of transport available in the country, INDIAN RAILWAYS is still able to maintain its competitive position due to many advantages like geographical diversity, world’s largest networks, and above all its economical fares in delivering the services. Marketing Mix Product Railways offer three major types of services: 1) Freight Service 2) Passenger Service 3) Parcel Service Freight Service IR carries a huge variety of goods ranging from mineral ores, fertilizers and petrochemicals, agricultural produce, iron & steel, multimodal traffic and others. Ports and major urban areas have their own dedicated freight lines and yards. Many important freight stops have dedicated platforms and independent lines. Indian Railways makes 70% of its revenues and most of its profits from the freight sector, and uses these profits to cross-subsidise the loss-making passenger sector. . Within the freight segment, bulk traffic accounts for nearly 95 per cent, of which more than 44 per cent is contributed by coal. Indian Railways also transports vehicles over long distances. Trucks that carry goods to a particular location are hauled back by trains saving the trucking company on unnecessary fuel expenses. Refrigerated vans are also available in many areas. The â€Å"Green Van† is a special type used to transport fresh food and vegetables. Recently Indian Railways introduced the special ‘Container Rajdhani' or CONRAJ, for high priority freight. The highest speed notched up for a freight train is 120 kilometres per hour (75  mph) for a 5,500  metric tonne load. Under the Eleventh  Five Year Plan  of India (2007–2012), Ministry of Railways is constructing a new Dedicated Freight Corridor (DFC) covering about 2762 route km long. Passenger Service * Duronto Express These are the non-stop point to point rail services (except for operational stops) introduced for the first time in 2009. These trains connect the metros and major state capitals of India and are faster than Rajdhani Express. The Duronto services consists of classes of accommodation namely first AC, two-tier AC, three-tier AC, AC 3 Tier Economy, Sleeper Class, General Class. * Rajdhani Express These are all air-conditioned trains linking major cities to New Delhi. The Rajdhanis have high priority and are one of the fastest trains in India, travelling at about 140 km/h (87 mph). There are only a few stops on a Rajdhani route. * Shatabdi and Jan Shatabdi Express The Shatabdi trains are AC intercity seater-type trains for travel during day. Jan-Shatabdi trains consists of both AC and non-AC classes. * Garib Rath Fully air conditioned trains, designed for those who cannot afford to travel in the expensive Shatabti and Rajdhani Express. Garib Rath means â€Å"Chariot of the Poor†. The maximum speed is 130 km/h. * Superfast Mail/Express These are trains that have an average speed greater than 55 km/h (34 mph). Tickets for these trains have an additional super-fast surcharge. Mail/Express These are the most common kind of trains in India. They have more stops than their super-fast counterparts, but they stop only at relatively important intermediate stations. * Rajya Rani Express These are a series of express trains operated by Indian Railways to connect state capitals with other cities important for tourism, pilgrimage or business. * Passenger and Fast Pas senger These are slow trains that stop at most stations along the route and are the cheapest trains. The trains generally have unreserved seating accommodation but some night trains have sleeper and 3A compartments. Suburban trains These trains operate in urban areas, usually stop at all stations and have unreserved seating accommodation. * Special Tourist Trains Palace on Wheels, Deccan Odyssey, Heritage On Wheels, Golden Chariot, Darjeeling Toy Train Price Freight Traffic A number of steps have been taken in the recent years to augment the railway loading as well as the earning of the Railways. As a result of those steps, the Freight earning of the Railways increased from Rs. 36,287 crore in 2005-06 to Rs. 41,717 crore in 2006-07 (increase of 16 per cent) and the loading increased from 667. 0 MT in 2005-06 to 728. 41 MT in 2006-07 (increase of 9. 2 per cent). Continuing the process further, the Railways have taken many initiatives to increase the railways freight earnings such as discount up to 30 per cent has been permitted on traffic loaded in the notified Traditional Empty Flow Directions during both busy and lean seasons, along with special long term; lump sum rates and other concessions. Passenger Traffic Pricing process is very complex due to the presence of various types of trains, quotas, classes, and concessions. The Pricing strategy is based on keeping in mind the need the entire population of the country and is mainly based on the type of class as described below: * 1AThe First class AC: This is the most expensive class, where the fares are on par with airlines. Bedding is included with the fare in IR. This air conditioned coach is present only on popular routes between metropolitan cities and can carry 18 passengers. The coaches are carpeted, have sleeping accommodation and have privacy features like personal coupes. * 2AAC-Two tier: Air conditioned coaches with sleeping berths, ample leg room, curtains and individual reading lamps. Berths are usually arranged in two tiers in bays of six, four across the width of the coach then the gangway then two berths long ways, with curtains provided to give some privacy from those walking up and down. Bedding is included with the fare. A broad gauge coach can carry 48 passengers. * FCFirst class: Same as 1AC, without the air conditioning. This class is not very common. * 3AAC three tier: Air conditioned coaches with sleeping berths. Berths are usually arranged as in 2AC but with three tiers across the width and two long ways as before giving eight bays of eight. They are slightly less well appointed, usually no reading lights or curtained off gangways. Bedding is included with fare. It carries 64 passengers in broad gauge. * 3EAC three tier (Economy): Air conditioned coaches with sleeping berths, present in Garib Rath Trains. Berths are usually arranged as in 3AC but with three tiers across the width and three long ways. They are slightly less well appointed, usually no reading lights or curtained off gangways. Bedding is not included with fare. * CCAC chair car: An air-conditioned seater coach with a total of five seats in a row used for day travel between cities. ECExecutive class chair car: An air-conditioned seater coach with a total of four seats in a row used for day travel between cities. * SLSleeper class: The sleeper class is the most common coach, and usually ten or more coaches could be attached. These are regular sleeping coaches with three berths vertically stacked. In broad gauge, it carries 72 passengers per coach. Railways ha ve modified certain Sleeper Coaches on popular trains to accommodate 81 passengers in place of regular 72 passengers. This was done in order to facilitate benefits like clear the Passenger rush and simultaneously earn more revenue. But this has got lukewarm response with criticism from the travellers and railways have decided to remove them. * 2SSeater class: Same as AC Chair car, but with bench style seats and without the air-conditioning. * URUnreserved: The cheapest accommodation, the seats usually made up of pressed wood, but the cushioned seats have been rapidly replaced. Although entry into the compartment is guaranteed, a sitting seat is not guaranteed. Tickets issued are valid on any train on the same route if boarded within 24 hours of buying the ticket. These coaches are usually very crowded. Also higher prices are charged for Tatkal scheme and lower for senior citizens and children below 12 years of age. As a part of ongoing marketing strategy, a number of steps have been taken by Indian Railways such as reduction in fares, proliferation of ticketing facility, introduction of Passengers Incentive Schemes like Upgradation, Scheme for Frequent Travellers (SOFT), etc. Place Tickets can be booked through a variety of ways: * Book in Person at Stations * Computerized Reservation Centre * Online booking * SMS Travel Agents Promotion Since the Indian Railways is a monopoly, they do not spend much on promotional activities. Their major promotions include advertising in print media, usually newspapers and hoardings. They sponsor certain national events such as the recently held Commonwealth Games in Delhi and beam TV commercials during that period. Bibliography http://www. sustainable-sourcing. com/2009/06/29/nhs-procurements-10-carbon-chal lenge/ www. wikipedia. org http://indiabudg et. nic. in/es2001-02/chapt2002/chap98. pdf http ://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Indian Railways

Family Planning Essay

In the past 50 years, family-planning programs have been heavily promoted across the developing world. A vast academic literature now tests both the intellectual rationale for these programs, as well as their impact on a wide range of demographic and economic outcomes. In recent years, the availability of new methods and new datasets from the developing world has intensified the academic research on these issues even though the support for family-programs themselves has diminished. This paper examines the economic and demographic literature on family planning programs and summarizes evidence of their impact on fertility as well as additional outcomes such as child mortality, investments in children’s human capital, the economic status of households and the macro-impacts on communities. The goal is to provide policy-makers with an understanding of the strengths, limitations and points of agreement that emerge from this vast literature. PRELIMINARY AND INCOMPLETE DRAFT 1. Introduction In the past 50 years, family planning (FP) programs have been heavily promoted across the developing world as a means to reduce fertility rates and promote economic development. The central assumption behind such programs is that the decline in birth rates during the early stages of demographic transition can promote economic growth, reduce environmental pressures, reduce dependency ratios and strengthen a societies’ ability to invest in health and education (Coale, Hoover, and Press 1958). At the micro-level, it has been assumed that a decline in fertility would relieve women of the burden of repeated child-bearing and free up opportunities for them to increase schooling and participate in the labor-force. A significant literature – shaped by economists and demographers – now tests these assumptions (Kelley and McGreevey 1994; Kelley 1995). Much of the literature however, remains either theoretical or focused on macro-correlations between variables such as fertility or population growth and indicators of development such as GDP growth or female education. The causal impact of declining fertility and/or the impacts of FP programs on fertility have proved to be difficult to find. One of the main challenges faced by researchers is that fertility decline is affected by a wide range of variables, including socioeconomic variables such as income, education (particularly female education) and female employment. Changes in these variables can affect the demand for FP, the structure of the programs, and their ultimate impact. There is also the issue of policy itself. FP programs are rarely rolled out randomly. Placement of programs in areas with distinct characteristics made it di fficult to identify the precise policy driver of any observed change in behavior. In recent years, the research has been enriched by the availability of new methods and new datasets from the developing world. This includes cross-sectional surveys such as the Demographic and Health Surveys (DHS), panel datasets such as the Family Life Surveys, and the use of random assignment evaluation methods that study causal relationships under careful scientific experimental structures. This paper examines this literature and summarizes evidence of the impact of FP programs on fertility as well as additional outcomes such as child mortality, investments in children’s human capital, the economic status of households and the macro-impacts on communities. We define an FP program as any organized effort to encourage couples to limit their family size, and space their births by using contraceptive information and services. This includes legislative, regulatory, and programmatic efforts to supply contraceptives to a population as well as efforts to reduce the demand for children and/or increase the demand for contraception through information and/or social marketing campaigns. The paper is organized as follows: Section 2 provides a brief history of FP programs in the post WWII era and argues that FP programs have declined in priority after the ICPD conference in Cairo in  1994. Sections 3 and 4 provide an overview of two strands of the literature on FP programs: non-experimental studies that use cross-sectional or panel data to evaluate large-scale FP programs in states, countries or regions; and experimental studies that analyze random or pseudo-random pilot projects. Section 5 examines the literature on the cost-effectiveness of FP programs. Section 6 provides some perspectives that are likely to interest policy-makers. PRELIMINARY AND INCOMPLETE DRAFT 2. Family planning programs: A short history Family planning (FP) programs emerged after World War II. The world’s first major program was established in India in 1951 and was soon after followed by Pakistan, the Republic of Korea, and China. By 1975, about 74 developing countries had established them (Seltzer 2002; Cleland et al. 2006). Most programs fall into three general groups: (a) those that specifically aimed to curtail population growth through explicit policies such as promoting contraception and/or establishing incentives to have fewer children; (b) those that did not aim to curtail population growth, but promoted FP for other purposes; and (c) those with no explicit population policies but allowed outside donors to run programs that were mostly small in scale (Nortman and Hofstatter 1980; Nortman 1985). The first group was dominated by Asian countries, mainly East Asia and some South Asian countries (Mauldin, Berelson, and Sykes 1978; Lapham and Mauldin 1985; Mauldin and Ross 1991)1. In China and Vietnam for e xample, the governments formally announced in the early 1960s that couples should have no more than two or three children and began a wide-range of interventions that either directly or indirectly contributed towards this goal. Many governments provided citizens with incentives to meet these targets. In China, couples with more than two children (or one child in some parts of China) were subjected to fines and penalties, though the enforcement of this program varies significantly (Short and Fengying 1998; Attane 2002). Permanent methods of contraception (mainly sterilization) were often provided for free.2 In Korea, Indonesia and Thailand, FP programs focused heavily on the expansion of usage of IUDs and other temporary methods in addition to permanent  methods. In South Asia, the programs were less strong than in East Asia but large in scope. India for example, established a vast network of clinics that were to provide contraceptive services. In the 1960s, this was followed by a public health–based outreach program which emphasized education and awareness particularly in rural areas (Harkavy and Roy 1997). A common feature of almost all programs in this group was that they were generally led, funded and managed by domestic governments, and involved a broad range of mini stries and mass organizations that focus on educating, promoting, and encouraging couples to use FP methods. Another common feature of programs in this group is that they were typically one component of broader development policies that aimed to increase access to health-care, education and industrialization. These authors have developed quantitative measures of family planning program strength, or â€Å"effort† that are based on the number and quality of institutions that are involved with family planning programs. The measures of effort came from the belief that strong family planning programs must possess some essential features: (a) It should offer a full range of contraceptive methods and deliver them through several delivery systems, particularly in rural areas; (b) It should have a corps of full-time fieldworkers and educated the public about contraception; (c) Prominent leaders should issue frequent statements favoring the use of contraceptives; (d) The program should have a full-time director, placed well up in the government structure, and various ministries and private agencies should provide technical, logistical and financial assistance. More will be said about these criteria, and the studies that support them later in this paper. In Vietnam, Bryant (1998: 246) writes that right before fertility declined, thousands of health workers were given basic training and sent to villages to promote use of mosquito nets, distribute locally made drugs, deliver babies, administer vaccinations, and carry out other standard primary health care functions. PRELIMINARY AND INCOMPLETE DRAFT The second group of countries was dominated by Latin America.3 Until about 1960, governments in this region remained strongly pro-natalist in their ideals (Mundigo 1996). This changed due to a concern about the high incidence of unsafe abortions in the mid-1960s. Abortions performed in unsanitary conditions by unqualified personnel were believed to contribute to maternal mortality and also resulted in large public expenditures as women with abortion-related complications sought care en masse from public hospitals (Mundigo 1996). To minimize disagreement with the Catholic Church however, FP programs in Latin America began as small private initiatives that were largely funded by international donors and NGOs. In most countries, particularly Brazil and Peru, these programs were ultimately incorporated into national public health programs. By the 1980s, countries in this group generally had broader goals than simply reducing fertility and/or the practice of unsafe abortion. They generall y aimed at improving maternal and child health through greater birth spacing, access to pre- and post-natal care. Some Asian programs also fall into this category. Bangladesh is particularly noteworthy. Its national program, launched in 1976, aimed to provide women with a wide a range of contraceptive methods through home-visits by a network of locally recruited female-health care workers. Sterilization was included in the package of options and in the first few years of the program, compensation was offered to those who chose the procedure (Cleland and Mauldin 1991). Yet the program remained largely voluntary and focused on maternal and child-health more broadly. A similar effort is seen in Iran, which launched its program in 1989. Free contraceptives were distributed through a network of village health workers, who also advised women on a broad range of maternal and child health issues. The third group of countries was almost entirely dominated by Sub-Saharan Africa. Some countries did establish programs early on. Kenya and Ghana for example, established FP programs in the late 1960s. Tanzania established a FP program in 1970. Senegal established an urban FP program in 1976 and a rural program in 1979. Much of Francophone Africa however, remained largely untouched by the wave of interest in FP programs throughout this period. A 1920 French law that banned advertising and distribution of contraceptives  continued to prevail. Across most of Africa, issues of population growth remained sensitive and highly politicized throughout the post-war period. Nigeria for example, adopted a national population council to study the issue of population growth but did not adopt any national policies to lower fertility (Caldwell and Caldwell, 1983). This was at least in part because census data that formed the basis of such decisions was regarded as too controversial. The results of the 1962 and 1973 census were actually nullified due to dispute and controversy over accuracy of the size of minority groups. Even when they were adopted, African FP programs differed significantly from their counterparts in other countries in several key ways. First, the focus was almost entirely on temporary methods, since permanent methods were regarded as culturally unacceptable (J. C Caldwell and P. Caldwell 1987; J. C Caldwell and P. Caldwell 1988). The establishment of robust supply chains for temporary contraceptives Only five Latin American countries fell in the first group – Mexico, Colombia, the Dominican Republic, El Salvador and Guatemala. Mexico is the largest among these. In 1974, access to family planning was declared as a constitutional right for all couples. In 1977, a national coordinating body was establish to expand the supply of contraception and a demographic target of population growth of no more than 2.5 percent per year by 1982 was declared. A wide variety of methods, including oral contraceptives as well as permanent sterilizations, were offered and the contraceptive prevalence rate doubled within a span of less than five years (Rodriguez-Barocio et al., 1980). PRELIMINARY AND INCOMPLETE DRAFT however, proved to be very challenging in the African context. The health-care infrastructure in this region was weak and burdened with a high demand for curative services. Moreover, most rural women resided far away from clinics or health centers (Caldwell and Caldwell 1992). Stringent eligibility criteria also made it difficult to reach women. In many cases, a woman’s access to contraception required the written consent of husband,  proof of marital status or age, blood tests (for oral contraceptives), frequent follow-up visits, and non-evidence based requirements that she be menstruating at the time that she starts using certain methods such as IUDs or hormone-based systems (Campbell et al., 1996). Cultural preferences for high fertility often made women unwilling to be seen attending these clinics. Moreover, since consumers did not receive adequate information about contraceptives, side-effects were often misinterpreted and rumors were propagated. These factors combined to cause discouragement and discontinuation in the long-run (Campbell et al., 1996). Across Asia and Latin America, the spread of primary healthcare services, rapid increases in female schooling, the processes of socio-economic development and the use of marketing campaigns to promote awareness of FP programs may have alleviated some of these problems. A second distinctive feature of African programs is that they were supported by a large number of international donors who rarely coordinated their actions with national governments or even between themselves. Since the weakness of domestic health infrastructure ruled out the establishment of â€Å"vertical† programs that packaged FP with primary health services, donors preferred to fund standalone programs that they could establish, manage and monitor themselves (Seltzer, 2002; Robinson and Ross, 2007; Mayhew, Walt, Lush and Cleland, 2005). The programs thus often remained small-scale. The goals used to evaluate the programs were often short-term in keeping with the demands of short budgetcycles. This approach stands in stark contrast to Asian and Latin American programs that were typically run by Ministries of Health and were backed by long-term budget commitments. Donor retreat International interest in FP programs lost momentum in the early 1980s. The intellectual shift behind this is often referred to as â€Å"revisionist thinking† and refers to a retreat from Malthusian fears about the crippling effect of population growth on economic growth as well as the concern with the adequacy of supplies of food and natural resources (Kelley 1995; Kelley 2001). A wide range of factors fueled revisionist thought: the rapid pace of fertility decline in Asia, the success of the green revolution, the lack of convincing academic evidence for a negative relationship between population growth and economic growth, etc. Economists emphasized that the long-run impact of population growth in economic development may not necessarily be negative. On the contrary, investments in human capital and innovation in growing populations can even have positive effects on growth and development outcomes (Simon and Lincoln 1977; Boserup 1981). Critics of FP programs used this literature to make the case that many FP programs in the developing world had been conceptualized and implemented with a false sense of urgency after World War II, without sufficient internal debate, deliberation and consensus (Kelley 1995; Kelley 2001). Revisionist intellectual thought was also reinforced by the voices of NGOs in international policy. These groups highlighted examples of FP programs that had not gone well in parts of China, India, Indonesia, Mexico, Peru, etc (for a summary, see Seltzer, 2002: 62—70). In India for example, the controversial PRELIMINARY AND INCOMPLETE DRAFT HITTS model (Health Department operated, incentive-based, target-oriented, time-bound, and sterilization-focused) was so unpopular that it contributed to the collapse of the Indian government in 1977 and prompted India to launch a significant critique of FP programs in international policy circles (Harkavay and Roy, 2007).4 Feminists argued that women in particular, paid a high price for population policies, for they had often been viewed as passive â€Å"targets† who needed to become â€Å"acceptors† of contraception (Dixon-Mueller, 1993). They demanded that policies recognize women as key agents in the process of reproduction and must empower them – through education, information and access to health services (that include but are not limited to FP) – to have establish control over their bodies. The impact of the rights-based approach was visible at the Vienna Conference on Human Rights in 1993 where there was an explicit recognition of the importance of reproductive rights and the need for national and international development policies to be built around these rights. The biggest shift however, occurred in Cairo at the International Conference on Population and Development in 1994. The definition of reproductive rights was took center-stage and included not only issues of reproductive decision-making,  but sexual health and female empowerment more generally.6 Delegates explicitly called for dropping demographic and FP program targets in favor of a broader policy agenda that included a range of reproductive and sexual health measures. FP thus became embedded into a broader set of policy-goals. In the words of the UNFPA, â€Å"[The ICPD Programme of Action] places human rights and well-being explicitly at the centre of all population and sustainable development activities. The Programme of Action moves discussion beyond population numbers and demographic targets: its premise is that development objectives — including early stabilization of population growth — can be achieved only by basing policies and programmes on the human rights, the needs and aspirations of individual women and men. Human-centred development -in the sense of investing in people generally, and particularly in health, education and building equity and equality between the sexes — is seen as a firm basis for sustained economic growth and sustainable development (UNFPA, 1995:9).† The representatives of 179 governments agreed on the need to ensure universal access to reproductive health services by the year 2015. These governments also agreed to increase spending on population According to Harkavy and Roy (2007), the government’s Department of Family Planning estimated that more than 20 million births were averted between 1956 and 1975. Calculations based on the number of births averted concluded that the annual birthrate fell from about 42 live births per 1,000 population in 1960–61 to about 38 in 1970–71 and about 35 in 1974–75. The critique of FP programs also came from health advocates who argued that despite the strides made in the safety of technologies such as oral pills and injectibles, safety issues remain. They did not agree that the benefits of choice outweighed the risks and argued that contraceptive safety needed greater attention (Seltzer, 2002). Other health advocates argued that FP had absorbed far too much policy attention and development assistance, neglecting other critically important issues. This includes the right not to be alienated from their sexual or reproductive capacity and bodily integrity through coerced sex or marriage, denial of access to birth control, sterilization without informed consent, freedom from unsafe contraceptive methods, from unwanted pregnancies or coerced child bearing, from unwanted medical attention. PRELIMINARY AND INCOMPLETE DRAFT  and related programs. The needed resources were estimated at $17 billion a year by 2000, climbing to nearly $22 billion by 2015.7 This agenda was however met with resistance by several groups. First, there were those who challenged the coupling of a gender ideology with issues of reproductive health. In Jordan for examples, elites felt that the proposals regarding reproductive health were acceptable, but proposals that aimed to reduce gender-based violence, deliver sex-education to adolescents, spread information about STIs and the promote gender equality conflicted with existing cultural norms and could not be implemented quickly (Luke and Watkins, 2002; Seltzer, 2002). A second challenge to the Cairo agenda came from religious groups felt that the expanded definitions of reproductive health and reproductive choice tacitly included abortion and more controversial methods of fertility reduction. Even though the Cairo agenda was carefully worded to not support abortion in any circumstances, many people believed that the two issues were too deeply related to be separated in practice (Seltzer, 2002).8 In 2001, with support from the Vatican, the United States publicly opposed abortion, once again implemented the â€Å"gag rule† and thereby withdrew association with all organizations that offer women abortion services as a part of their general effort to expand reproductive choices for women.9,10 A final challenge came from the sheer breadth and language of the agenda itself. Some have argued that the focus on sexual health and reproductive rights was so broad that it simply failed to gain traction in parliaments  and chambers of government across the developed world (Glasier et al. 2006; Fathalla et al. 2006). While Cairo advocates emphasized the importance of rights, donors were most interested in arguments that demonstrate a clear economic return on investment (Fathalla et al. 2006). The loss of focus also led to a fragmentation of academic and policy research. Many turned their attention to new competing priorities, such as HIV (Glasier et al. 2006; Fathalla et al. 2006, Blanc and Tsui, 2005). A visible sign of just how divisive the Cairo agenda was comes from the UN’s Millennium Development Goals, agreed to by nearly all nations in 2000. The only goals that were related to reproductive health were the reductions in maternal and child mortality. Reproductive choices and reproductive rights were completely sidelined. In fact, the Cairo goal of universal access to reproductive health services was possibly the only goal that had been agreed to through a series of global conferences that did not make the final list of eight Millennium Development Goals (United Nations, 2000). In 2007, these goals were modified to include â€Å"universal access to reproductive health† by 2015. Progress was to be measured by  www.unfpa.org The Program of Action stated that â€Å"in no case should abortion be promoted as a method of family planning,† and elsewhere that â€Å"in [such] circumstances in which abortion is not against the law, such abortion should be [made] safe.† This was intended to be a compromise between those who opposed abortion on all grounds and those governments and NGOs who permitted abortion in varying degrees. 9 This was one of President George W. Bush’s first acts in office in January, 2001. 10 A cap of $15 million was placed for foreign NGOs and multilateral organizations who could not certify that they will not support any abortion-related activities, even if they use their own funds for these activities four indicators: the contraceptive prevalence rate, the adolescent birth rate, antenatal care coverage, and the unmet need for FP (United Nations 2007; UNFPA 2011)  Another sign of the damage from Cairo is seen in the international HIV policies. In the late 1990s, policymakers in the United States and indeed much of the world, were compelled to focus on the challenge of HIV. Rather than building services into FP programs however, donors chose to establish entirely new programs. One of the biggest examples is the establishment of President’s Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief (PEPFAR) under US President George W. Bush in 2003. This was one of the largest efforts in history to address the challenge of one disease. The only relationship between this program and FP was i ts attempt to encourage abstinence as a form of prevention of HIV.11 Some have argued that the focus on HIV and AIDS simply replaced the Cairo agenda, when they should have in fact simply reinforced and complemented it (Blanc and A. O Tsui 2005). In summary, the global interest in FP programs has swung from extreme interest after World War II to disinterest at the turn of the century. The weakness of such programs is most pronounced in SubSaharan Africa. The rate of contraceptive prevalence remains only 26%, less than half of the world average, despite significant investments in treating sexually transmitted diseases such as HIV (WDI 2010). At the current time however, there appears to be a renewed interest in the role of FP, particularly in approaches that are broad-based, female-focused, voluntary and respectful of basic human rights. In the section ahead, we review the literature on the effectiveness and impact of FP programs with the goal of demonstrating that such programs can have impact on not just fertility but a variety of other aspects of women’s well-being. 3. What do we know about the impact of FP programs? Perspectives from the non-experimental approach FP programs in the 1960s, 1970s and 1980s were mostly established in the  absence of scientific evidence or agreement about program â€Å"best-practices†. This is mainly because detailed time-series data on economic as well as demographic variables was scarce at both the micro- and macro-level. Over time however, data was gathered and researchers began to test some of the fundamental assumptions underlying FP programs. The first wave of studies used a non-experimental approach, i.e. they evaluated the impact of FP programs involving using cross-sectional or panel data from a country, region, or set of regions to test the hypothesis that FP programs impacted contraceptive use or fertility. As more data became available, and FP programs were rolled out, these studies were updated and expanded. The research continues to evolve today, even though the interest in FP programs has declined among policy-makers. Most of the research in this area faces two key challenges. The first is the challenge of measurement. Given that FP programs are heterogeneous in goals, quality of services, delivery systems and implementation strategies, researchers must construct a measure of program strength and not rely 11 The following conditions were imposed in the United States Leadership against HIV/AIDS, Tuberculosis, and Malaria Act of 2003: 20% of funds were to be spent on prevention, 15% to be spent on palliative care, and starting in 2006, at least 55% were to be spent on treatment, at least 10% be spent on orphans and vulnerable children, and at least 33% of appropriated prevention funds be spent on abstinence-until-marriage programs. REFERENCES Amin, S. 1995. Socioeconomic change and the demand for children in rural Bangladesh. Population Council, Research Division. Angeles, G., Jason Dietrich, David Guilkey, Dominic Mancini, Thomas Mroz, Amy Tsui, and Feng Yu Zhang. 2001. A Meta-analysis of the Impact of Family Planning Programs on Fertility Preferences, Contraceptive Method Choice and Fertility. 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